@conference {41418,
	title = {Achieving 4\% productivity: Implications from a longitudinal study of farmer learning in dairy farming},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {63},
	year = {2003},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {116-119},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	address = {Queenstown},
	abstract = {The New Zealand dairy industry needs to achieve 3 to 4\% pa gains in productivity.  Accomplishing this on-farm will require continuous innovation by farmers.  Innovation may result from the refinement of existing practices, or the introduction of new practices or technologies.  Farmer learning will be pivotal to the rate of innovation.  However, despite its importance, relatively little is known about farmer learning.  We investigated the tactical feed management processes used by two high-performing dairy farmers over summer-autumn for three years, using a multiple-case study design.  Learning undertaken by the farmers could be classified within three broad domains (the production and management systems, and the environment), but normally involved the interactions between at least two of these.  Two stimuli initiated learning: the occurrence of extreme conditions or the introduction of a new management practice. Different learning processes were identified with respect to these.  This study provides a framework for extension agents to identify the {\textquotedblleft}knowledge gaps{\textquotedblright} farmers need to close in order to improve productivity.  It also assists developers of a new technology, since farmers want to know how the new technology impacts on their production systems, responds under a range of conditions, and is best incorporated into their management.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Gray DI and Parker WJ and Kemp EA}
}
@conference {41202,
	title = {Dairy farmer perceptions of the industry{\textquoteright}s {\textquoteright}clean and green{\textquoteright} image},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {60},
	year = {2000},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {222-225},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	address = {Hamilton},
	abstract = {The purpose of this research was to quantify how dairy farmers believed their practices contributed to (or harmed) NewZealand{\textquoteright}s {\textquotedblleft}clean and green{\textquotedblright} image. Dairy farmers (n=350) from eight regions of New Zealand were surveyed by mail.The majority of respondents (n=218) were mainly male (88\%), older than 40 years (65\%) and owner-operators (45\%) orsharemilkers (31\%). Some 81\% thought New Zealand dairy farming deserved its {\textquotedblleft}clean and green{\textquotedblright} image, 90\% said thisimproved the marketing of New Zealand dairy products internationally, and 72\% believed consumer perceptions of farmingpractices did affect their purchase decisions. The farming practices most strongly associated with a negative impact on the{\textquotedblleft}clean and green{\textquotedblright} image of dairying were: cows in muddy paddocks (81\% farmers), induction (71\%), bobby calves by theroadside (62\%) and tail docking (59\%). Enhancers of the image were pasture grazing by cows (87\%) and being outdoorsyear round (62\%). The majority of farmers believed larger herds (80\%), bloat drenching (79\%), dehorning (65\%), intensivefertiliser use (65\%), effluent disposal (58\%) and use of antibiotics (53\%) to have no effect on the {\textquotedblleft}clean and green{\textquotedblright} image.Concerns were expressed that a small group of farmers with poor management practice could seriously affect the industry{\textquoteright}s image.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Billones R and Parker WJ and Kuiper D}
}
@conference {41207,
	title = {The future for small dairy farms: Constraints, plans and priorities},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {60},
	year = {2000},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {241-246},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	address = {Hamilton},
	abstract = {Small dairy farms (<60 ha and/or <180 cows) represent about one third of New Zealand{\textquoteright}s dairy herds. Declining real returns for milksolids (MS) and inflation are continuing to squeeze their profitability to the extent that, without change, many are likely to exit the industry in the next decade. A mail survey of 1389 farmers was conducted to quantify their plans for the future, the constraints they faced in improving farm income and ways the dairy industry could assist them. A response rate of 41\% was achieved. The majority of respondents were over 45 years (74.4\%) with the average age being 51 years. Most (85\%) were happy with their farm location, but 48\% said they were dissatisfied with their farm size. However, few would sell to buy a bigger farm elsewhere (17.8\%) or to invest in non-farming activities (24.1\%) Only 24\% expected their children to continue dairying on the home farm. Few believed their own ability, others{\textquoteright} opinions or suitable learning opportunities were limiting their ability to improve farm income. Most believed expenses could be reduced very little (mean = 3.6\%). However, MS production could be increased compared to current levels to a greater extent (mean = 15.8\%, range 0 to 248\%). Factors restricting the improvement of farm income were: the economic and political environment (s=2) (s=median score, where 1=strongly agree and 5=strongly disagree), unfavourable actions of the dairy industry (2), lack of capital (3) and environmental limitations (3). Plans for 2009 included: retired from farming (s=3), (where 1=very unlikely and 5= very likely), on the same farm but no longer dairying (3), no or minor change (2) and have a bigger dairy farm (2). Farmers{\textquoteright} priorities for using a 10\% higher cash surplus were: debt repayment (s=4; as for previous scale), farm development (4), off-farm investment (3) and improvements to the family home (3). While potential exists to increase production on dairy farms with small herds, the survey indicates a considerable reduction in the number of these will occur over the next decade. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Rauniyar GP and Dooley AE}
}
@conference {41007,
	title = {Evaluating the business risk associated with feeding supplements to dairy cows on pasture},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {58},
	year = {1998},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {125-127},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The beta analysis technique provides a practical tool for evaluating the business risk associated with feeding supplements to dairy cows. The break-even cost, the expected profitability and the probability of making a profit can all be derived by predicting the marginal milksolids (MS) response, and applying prices for MS and supplements. The range of possible outcomes is simulated from specified maximum and minimum values, and the associated response distribution for each of these variables. The profitability of feeding maize silage on a market milk supply dairy farm was used to demonstrate the possible application of formal risk analysis to dairy herd management with a 50\% spring: 50\% autumn calving pattern. To be profitable, the marginal response to maize silage has to be maximised when no milk premium is paid, but, in the months when a premium is earnt, the risk of not making a profit is small. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Laborde D and Shadbolt NM and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {41037,
	title = {A participatory evaluation of out-of-season beef cattle finishing systems in the lower North Island.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {58},
	year = {1998},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {231-235},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Beef cattle slaughter in New Zealand continues to be strongly seasonal, despite various initiatives by meat processing companies to alter the pattern of supply of cattle for slaughter. The farmer{\textquoteleft}s perspective of out-of-season (OOS) production systems (August -October supply) and the biological and financial feasibility of these was investigated through a participatory approach to farm system modelling. Three case farms were modelled using STOCKPOL and alternative cattle policies that provided a greater proportion of cattle for slaughter in OOS and shoulder (November - December and June - July) months were investigated with the farmers. Even with premiums 20\% above schedule, farmers were unwillings to change policies to OOS. They were concerned about increased business risk, poorer feed quality, increased pasture pugging, greater workload over the busy lambing/calving period, poorer overall suitability to the property and conflict with personal preference. They were more receptive to policies that would increase shoulder production and this factor combined with off-farm improvements in technology for delivering fresh products to overseas destinations may be sufficient to gain new or greater access to high value markets. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Sherlock TJ and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {41018,
	title = {Sheep breeding: an enterprise budgeting decision support model for on-farm planning.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {58},
	year = {1998},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {165-169},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {In selecting a sheep breeding strategy farmers need to evaluate the likely physical and financial outcomes relative to continuing the existing policy. The strategy should be assessed in terms of the new status quo production levels and costs and prices at this time, and the possible associated effect of changes in product attributes relative to market requirements. To assist farmers evaluate alternative breeding scenarios a spreadsheet-based enterprise budgeting model was developed. The input data and output are summarised to a one-page template to allow the user to assess the sensitivity of returns to different market and production scenarios for a particular farm situation. A flock at current performance levels and those in 5 years, following genetic and management improvement, is compared to a crossbreeding strategy to illustrate the model{\textquoteright}s application. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Dooley AE and Garrick DJ}
}
@conference {40915,
	title = {Incorporating turnips into the pasture diet of lactating dairy cows.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {57},
	year = {1997},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {161-164},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Turnips have become a popular forage crop in New Zealand and Australia for supplementing dairy cows grazing pasture during the summer and autumn. However, it is unclear what combination of turnips and summer pasture best meets the dietary requirements of lactating dairy cows. New information was therefore gathered on the digestibility of turnips fed in conjunction with summer pasture and this was used in the ration balancing model, SPARTAN, to determine the optimum combination of turnips and summer pasture for a {\textquoteleft}large{\textquoteleft} dairy cow (500 kg, 17 l/d) during mid-to late-lactation. Twelve wethers (n = 3/group) were used to determine the in vivo digestibility of four diets with a summer pasture (P):turnip (T) dry matter (DM) ratio of: 100P:0T, 75P:25T, 50P:50T and 0P:100T. The DM digestibilities of the diets, fed at 1.0 kg DM/d, were 65, 71, 81 and 89\%, respectively. As the portion of turnips in the diet increased so too did the dry matter intake (0.64, 0.78, 0.77 and 0.93 kg DM/d, respectively). Relative to pasture, turnip was low in fibre and crude protein but high in available carbohydrate. The optimum portion of turnips, on a DM basis, when fed in conjunction with summer pasture was 21\% of the dietary intake. For the average New Zealand dairy cow, this equates to 3-5 kg turnip DM/d. A 100\% turnip diet would not meet cow requirements because of the low fibre and protein content of turnips, but a 100\% pasture diet could, providing it was reasonable of quality (ca. 65\% DMD and at least 17\% crude protein) and available in sufficient quantity not to restrict cow intake. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {McFerran R and Singh V and Parker WJ and Morris ST}
}
@conference {40880,
	title = {Sheep breeding objectives and selection criteria of Wairarapa and Tararua sheep farmers},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {57},
	year = {1997},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {33-36},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The adoption of recommended breeding practices, such as the use of performance recorded rams and objective selection of flock replacements, by sheep farmers is believed to be poor. This issue was investigated through a stratified random interview survey of 74 Wairarapa and Tararua wool growers. Equal emphasis was placed on breeding for wool and meat production by 73\% of the farmers surveyed. Only 23\% quantified their breeding objectives numerically in terms of wool production, lambing performance or carcass weights. Criteria, scored on a 4 point "importance" scale (1 = No; 4 = Great), for ewe hogget selection were: structural soundness (3.8 {\textpm} 0.1; mean score {\textpm} se) absence of black fibres (3.7 {\textpm} 0.1); visual body size (3.5 {\textpm} 0.1), wool characteristics (3.0 {\textpm} 0.1) and face cover (3.0 {\textpm} 0.1). Fleece and live weight recording was used by 22 and 54\% of the farmers, respectively, for ewe hogget selection. Ram selection criteria were similar as those for ewe hoggets, with measured fleece weight (3.4 {\textpm} 0.1) and selection index (3.1 {\textpm} 0.1), both being rated lower on average than structural soundness, conformation and body size. Farm management consultants and WoNZ Production Officers were rarely consulted for advice on ram selection (mean score 1.2 and 1.1 on 5-point scale) in comparison to ram breeders (2.9) and other farmers (1.8). The decision on whom to purchase rams from was most commonly made on the basis of the breeder{\textquoteleft}s reputation (29\%) and similarity of farm type (19\%). Price (1\%) and breeder advertisements (1\%) were not identified as important determinants of whom to buy rams from. Overall, the survey confirmed a general lack of objectivity in sheep breeding and selection decisions. More effective ways of promoting the value and use of objective sheep breeding information to sheep farmers are required. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Gavigan RG and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40842,
	title = {A comparison of unbred and once-bred lamb production},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {56},
	year = {1996},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {307-309},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The once-bred lamb (OBL) production system involves mating ewe  lambs at 8 months of age to be slaughtered at approximately 15 months of  age after rearing a lamb. This study compared the performance of bred ewe  lambs (},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Johnston JB and Morris ST and Purchas RW and McCutcheon SN and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40848,
	title = {The effect of shearing by cover comb or blades on the resistance of sheep to cold, windy and wet conditions},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {56},
	year = {1996},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {332-333},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Four pairs (total 8 sheep) of Romney mixed-age ewes were housed  indoors and fed chaffed lucerne hay at a level equivalent to 1.2 times  maintenance. Oxygen consumption was measured in two open circuit  calorimeter chambers on days -3, -2, 0, 2, 6 and 10 with day 0 being day of  shearing. On each measurement day, oxygen consumption was measured  under two sets of climatic conditions (cold plus wind, followed by cold plus  wind plus rain). Differences in live weight, fleece weight and liveweight  gain of the ewes were not statistically significant. The difference in the rate  of oxygen consumption (litres/kg0.75/hour) between cover comb and blade  shorn-sheep was not significant during the cold+wind conditions. However,  when },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Burnham DL and Holmes CW and Morris ST and Parker WJ and Kidd RI}
}
@conference {40835,
	title = {A farm level model to aid decisions regarding the feeding of concentrates to dairy cattle},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {56},
	year = {1996},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {280-284},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {In recent years dairy farm consultants in New Zealand and Australia  have regularly been asked to provide advice to farmers on whether the  feeding of concentrates to lactating cows on pasture diets is likely to be  economic. The outcome of such a decision is complicated because its  effects on milk production, liveweight change, pasture growth and decay,  and herd reproductive performance are influenced by variables pertaining to  the particular farm and herd involved. Some responses to concentrate inputs  are immediate; others occur in the long term. Information on each response  variable was integrated into a manual decision support framework to provide  a practical decision aid for consultants and farmers. A spreadsheet template  was then developed to reduce calculation time and allow a wider range of  feed and herd situations to be evaluated. The total economic benefits, and  hence breakeven price for concentrates were found to be heavily dependent  on the long term moblisation of liveweight gained, utilisation of extra  pasture grown and changes in the herd},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Neaves PJ and Parker WJ and Holmes CW}
}
@conference {40833,
	title = {Improving the efficiency of pasture-based dairy production},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {56},
	year = {1996},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {270-275},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {New Zealand dairy farmers have not achieved the increases in milk  production that parallel those of other countries and this has led to a re- evaluation of the opportunities to use feed inputs to complement pasture  diets for dairy production. An improved understanding of the chemical  composition of pastures, a re-examination of pasture growth dynamics, and  recent experimental evidence and farmer experience suggests that there is  potential to increase milk production from pasture through strategic inputs  of feeds to increase dry matter intake and improve the nutrient balance of the  cow},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Lean IJ and Parker WJ and Kellaway RC}
}
@conference {40834,
	title = {Nitrogen application to dairy pasture - the effect of rate and timing of spring nitrogen applications on the concentration of pasture nutrients},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {56},
	year = {1996},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {276-279},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Nitrogen (N) fertiliser was applied to ryegrass/white clover dairy  pasture in late winter/early spring. Four rates of N (0, 20, 40, 80 kg N as  urea) were applied to pregrazed and premown pasture with a residual  herbage mass of 1000 kgDM/ha-1 (stubble height of 1.5 cm).  Samples were collected from separate 2m2 plots 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks after N  application to detect nutrient changes over time from N appli},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Moller S and Edwards NJ and Parker WJ and Hodgson J and Wilson GF}
}
@conference {40836,
	title = {A whole farm approach to feed planning and ration balancing using UDDER and CAMDAIRY},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {56},
	year = {1996},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {285-288},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The potential of New Zealand cows for milk production remains  substantially under-utilised as a consequence of pasture-based feeding  systems. One means to increase per cow production is to balance pasture  diets to provide the correct quantities and ratios of nutrients to meet target  levels of milksolids production, but this needs to be done in a manner which  is profitable and consistent with good pasture management. The dairy farm  simulation model, UDDER, was used to evaluate supplementation strategies  for early and late lactation in order to increase milk yields per cow and the  farm gross margin. A sample of diets from UDDER were then tested with a  ration balancing model (CAMDAIRY) to identify nutrient limitations to  milk production. Undegraded protein (UDP) was limiting in all diets. It was  concluded that, ration balancing would be useful aid to feed management on  New Zealand dairy farms, but in practice could only be sensibly used if feed  and animal monitoring systems are in place to determine the type(s) and  period(s) of supple},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Uribe JV and Parker WJ and Dake CKG and McDonald A}
}
@conference {40670,
	title = {Apple pomace as a supplement to pasture for dairy cows in late lactation},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {55},
	year = {1995},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {67-69},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Eye muscle dimensions of meat and fat together with live or carcass   weight are important selection criteria for the improvement of carcass traits   in sheep. The use of B-mode ultrasound may offer scope for more efficient   progeny testing procedures. Two trials examined the use of ultrasound for   estimating eye muscle width (A) and depth (B) between the twelfth and   thirteenth ribs on live animals, and their carcasses immediately following   slaughter and up to nine hours later. These estimates were then compared   with ruler measurements on the eye muscle cut surfaces. Correlations   between the various estimates of B were high (r = 0.80 to 0.96). While the   correlation between the live scan of A and its ruler measurement was 0.75,   the correlations between carcass scans and ruler measurements were 0.40 to   0.61. This was due to difficulty in maintaining acoustic coupling over the   length of the probe, which was flat relative to the curved carcass surface. A   new curved offset offers excellent prospects for overcoming this problem.   },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Edwards NJ and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40672,
	title = {Characteristics of seasonal dairy farms achieving high per cow production in the lower North Island of New Zealand},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {55},
	year = {1995},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {72-75},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The accuracy of multi-frequency bioimpedance analysis (MFBIA) as a   predictor of carcass composition in lambs was assessed in a small study.   Impedance and its},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Crawford HK and Gray DI and Parker WJ and Edwards N}
}
@conference {40694,
	title = {Effect of continuous stocking of breeding ewes at different sward surface heights during the late summer-autumn on herbage intake and productivity},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {55},
	year = {1995},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {141-144},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {This study aimed to raise GnRH antibodies in young bulls  (immunocastration) and determine the subsequent effect on behaviour,  sexual development, carcass characteristics and meat quality. Thirty Friesian  bull calves were assigned to one of three groups balanced by liveweight  (control bulls, immunocastrates and steers). At nine months of age (Day 0)  immunocastrates were vaccinated against GnRH (Vaxstrate) and boosted one  month later (Day 31). Following immunisation there was a rise in GnRH  antibody titre and a decrease in testosterone. Control animals gained  significantly more weight than immunocastrates and steers in the first 157  days. Overall there was no difference in weight gain between controls and  immunocastrates. Mean scrotal diameter of immunocastrates decreased from  Day 31 to Day 110 and then rose to reach a diameter similar to those of the  control bulls by Day 322. Leg wear scores were lower for treated animals  compared to controls until Day 230 of the trial, although these differences  were not significant. Immunocastrates had a significantly higher mean  ultimate pH than both control bulls and steers. Bulls were significantly  leaner than immunocastrates, and both groups were leaner than steers.  },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Panggabean AU and Morris ST and Parker WJ and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40630,
	title = {Biological efficiency: How relevant is this concept to beef cows in a mixed livestock, seasonal pasture supply context?},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {54},
	year = {1994},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {333-336},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Efficiency, defined as the ratio of output to input, can be calculated for  
any product, and for any of the resources employed to generate that particular  
product.  "Weight of calf weaned per unit cow liveweight" is commonly used  
to measure biological efficiency in the beef cow herd, based partly on the  
assumption that feed intakes and hence costs are related to liveweight.  A more  
direct measure, and the one used here, is "weight of carcass produced per unit  
of feed intake".  The biological efficiency of the traditional beef breeding cow,  
determined in this manner, is low compared to that of other beef cow systems  
(e.g. twinning cows, once-bred heifers).  This is primarily because of the  
relatively low reproductive rate in traditional cow herds and the high proportion  
of annual feed consumption used to maintain the breeding female and her  
replacements. 
 
A simple output/input ratio may not, however, be appropriate for the mixed  
sheep and cattle systems which are widely used in New Zealand.  For these  
systems, where a competitive or complementary relationship may exist between  
enterprises, a more complex efficiency ratio that contains elements of the  
whole farm system is likely to be more appropriate.  Furthermore, in a seasonal  
pasture production system, where the supply of feed is likely to limit  
production at certain times of the year, feed does not have fixed value.  Feed  
costs therefore become an important component of the efficiency equation.   
Utilisation by other livestock of a scarce resource (e.g. winter feed) is also  
likely to have an influence on the economic efficiency of the system.  For  
example, if biological efficiency is ignored then output (weight of calf weaned)  
may be increased simply by increasing cow size but with no consideration of  
the extra feed inputs necessary to maintain larger cows, or the pressure that  
additional feed requirements may place on other components of the system at  
particular times of the year. 
 
In this paper, the relevance of biological efficiency is explored by comparing  
both biological and economic efficiencies of four cattle systems - traditional  
beef cows, beef x dairy cows (with and without twinning) and once-bred  
heifers - alone and in mixed sheep and cattle policies.  We conclude that  
biological efficiency is a relevant concept, primarily because its components  
(carcass weigh and feed consumed) are also important determinants of  
economic efficiency.  However marked differences between systems in the  
value of the carcass produced and/or feed consumed can lead to a poor  
correlation between the efficiency ranking of systems by biological and  
economic criteria. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Morris ST and Brookes IM and Parker WJ and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40567,
	title = {The effect of pasture height on herbage intake and ewe production under continuous stocking management during the autumn.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {54},
	year = {1994},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {75-78},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {A replicated trial design with ewes continuously stocked on mixed  
ryegrass/white clover pastures at three target sward surface heights (SSH) of 4,  
6 and 8 cm, and 16 ewes per sward treatment (total 96 ewes), was carried out  
from February through to April 1993.  Herbage intake was assessed indirectly  
from faecal output measured using chromium controlled release capsules and  
the <I>in vitro</I> digestibility of herbage samples obtained from oesophageal- 
fistulated sheep run with the ewes.  Intake measurements were taken before and  
after the rams were joined with the ewes. 
 
Pasture measurements for the 4, 6 and 8 cm SSH treatments were: SSH, 4.12 vs  
6.18 vs 7.97 cm (PSE 0.54 cm, P<0.05); mass, 3358 vs 4291 vs 5231 kg  
DM/ha (PSE 389 kg DM/ha, P<0.1); dead mater content, 38.9 vs 26.7 vs 40.4\%  
(PSE 5.8\%, NS); and organic matter digestibility, 68.0 vs 71.9 vs 63.8\% (PSE  
1.21\%, P<0.0001).  Organic Matter (OM) intakes fro the 4, 6 and 8 cm SSH  
treatments were 1.39 vs 1.86 vs 1.06 kg OM/ewe/day (PSE 0.08 kg  
OM/ewe/day, P<0.05) for the pre-mating intake and 1.26 vs 1.34 vs. 1.09 kg  
OM/head/day (PSE 0.06 kg OM/ewe/day, NS) for the mating intake period. 
 
Production responses of the ewes for the 4, 6 and 8 cm SSH treatments were:  
liveweight gain, 72 vs 83 vs. 73 g/day (PSE 5 g/day, NS); and wool growth  
rate, 1.37 vs 1.44 vs 1.42 mg/cm2/day (PSE 0.03 mg/cm2/day, NS).  These  
results suggest that, in the autumn, maximum herbage intake and ewe  
performance on ryegrass - white clover pastures can be obtained at a sward  
height of about 4 cm, and that pasture digestibility and dead matter content in  
the pastures are the major limiting factors at this time of year. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Burnham DL and Parker WJ and Morris ST}
}
@conference {40604,
	title = {Effects of pre-lamb and conventional full-wool shearing on the productivity of ewes},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {54},
	year = {1994},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {223-226},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The effects of pre-lamb and conventional (post-weaning) annual 
shearing of ewes on their productivity and that of their lambs were studies 
over a three year period.  Ewes (n-500) were selected from a flock of 5000 
mixed-age Border Leicester x Romney ewes at Massey University{\textquoteright}s Riverside 
property in the Wairarapa in April 1989 and randomly allocated to two equal 
sized groups.  Both groups were managed under the same conditions until December 
1991.  Throughout the trial, one group was shorn after weaning in  
November/December and the second group was shorn prior to lambing in  
August.  Ewe liveweight and lambing performance were measured over three  
years, and individual ewe fleeceweights were recorded over two full years.   
Pre-lambing ewe liveweights were similar for both policies in all years, while  
post-weaning liveweights were greater in pre-lamb shorn ewes in 1989 only.   
Annual fleeceweights were significantly (P<0.05) greater for the pre-lamb  
shorn ewes in 1990 (4.07{\textpm}0.05 vs 3.64{\textpm}0.06 kg) but not in 1991 (3.61{\textpm}0.08 vs  
3.75{\textpm}0.09 kg).  Lamb birthweights and weaning weights did not differ between  
shearing treatments.  The small difference in ewe and lamb performance  
between the shearing treatments suggests that management factors, such as the  
provision of feed and shelter post-shearing, the spread of seasonal work, net  
income per ewe and cashflow, should determine whether a pre-lamb shearing  
policy is adopted. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Dabiri N and Parker WJ and Morris ST and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40635,
	title = {Farm management research in New Zealand and its contribution to animal production},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {54},
	year = {1994},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {357-362},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Farm management is concerned with procedures that assist farm  
managers allocate limited physical, financial and human resources to achieve  
their personal (and family) objectives.  The process of resource allocation  
usually occurs with imperfect knowledge, and in the context of a biological  
and socio-economic system over which the farm manager has incomplete control.   
Management functions of planning, implementation and control are used to  
assist decision-making and the realisation of objectives in this uncertain  
environment.  These occur at strategic, tactical and operational levels. 
 
Early development of the farm management discipline was strongly shaped by  
microeconomic theory (especially production economics) and quantitative  
methods of analysis (mainly from operations research).  More recent  
development of the discipline has seen the addition of the farming systems  
research (FSR) philosophy and the application of qualitative techniques used  
in the social sciences.  These additions have improved the capacity of farm  
management research to account for the needs and aspirations of the farmer and  
farm family, and to consider the dynamics of the community in which they live.   
This holistic view recognises that farmers frequently do not exhibit economic  
optimising behaviour and that their decision-making processes often ignore the  
classical steps outlined in management textbooks. 
 
In contrast, animal scientists use a reductionist approach to investigate the  
animal component of the farming system, independent of the financial, social,  
and sometimes physical, constraints of a commercial farming situation.  It is  
logical then that farm management specialists should work with animal  
scientists to interpret animal-related research within the context of farming  
systems.  Today{\textquoteright}s increasingly sophisticated market for land-based products  
demands effective partnerships among all participants in the science -  
technology - production - processing - marketing chain.  Issues such as  
sustainability, product quality, animal welfare and the development of effective  
information systems are not the preserve of any single discipline.  The  
challenge to farm management researchers and animal scientists is to continue  
to develop effective working relationships in the future. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Gray DI and Lockhart JC and Townsley RJ}
}
@conference {40615,
	title = {Increasing per cow milk solids production in a pasture-based dairy system by manipulating the diet: A review.},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {54},
	year = {1994},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {267-274},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Research suggests that the genetic potential for milksolids (MS)  
production by New Zealand dairy cows is considerably under-exploited under  
current grazing conditions.  There is also a growing awareness that only  
small improvements in MS production per cow can be achieved with pasture-only  
systems on high producing New Zealand dairy farms (i.e. those producing  
315kg MS/cow or 1,000kg MS/ha).  The review identifies nutritional  
limitations of a pasture-based diet as one of the barriers to further  
increases in per cow MS production.  It is argued that further increases  
in per cow production on New Zealand{\textquoteright}s high producing (in terms of per cow MS  
production) dairy farms is contingent upon the need to balance the pasture- 
based diet for protein, carbohydrates, fibre, minerals and vitamins through  
strategic use of feedstuffs.  One of the keys to successfully balancing a  
pasture-based diet is to obtain better data on the nutritional status of pasture  
throughout the year so that the most economic feedstuffs which will balance  
the ration can be identified. },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Edwards NJ and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40471,
	title = {Drying off management and the use of management aids on seasonal supply dairy farms},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {53},
	year = {1993},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {127-132},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {No abstract supplied.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Gray DI and Lockhart JC and Lynch GA and Todd EAG}
}
@conference {40457,
	title = {Effects of body covers on milk production by cows during winter, and on oxygen consumption by young calves},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {53},
	year = {1993},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {65-68},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {In a study of dairy farm owners from a small geographical region and exposed to similar environmental conditions, management decisions were found to be better described by long-term goals than the commonly assumed goals of productivity and profitability. The assessment was made after analysing physical and managerial data from a two year period that included a period of drought. Farmers were interviewed to establish their long-term goals and the rationale of various farm strategies. Cognitive maps, where important concepts are mapped and linked to illustrate the line of argument, were used to represent visually, farmers goals and rationale. The long term goals of the 32 case farmers indicated that for 14 of them expansion and development was important; nine were interested in stabilising and economising; nine were looking for ways of reducing their involvement. These findings are relevant to advisers, who wish to help their client, to industries, whose goals may differ from those of the farmer, and to resource managers, who may wish to see environmental and ethical standards adopted by farmers.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Holmes CW and Cayzer F and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40444,
	title = {Herbage allowance - intake - production relationships in continuously stocked winter- and spring-lambing ewes},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {53},
	year = {1993},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {11-14},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The potential of by-products from fruit and vegetable growers and processors to serve as supplementary feeds for dairy cows in the Hawkes Bay region, which traditionally experiences poor summer pasture growth, was assessed. A total of 75 000 tonnes (wet matter) of by- products were produced by the six growers and processors surveyed, mainly between January and June. Peak by-product output occurred in April when an estimated 15,000 tonnes of wet matter was produced. Industry disposal costs ranged from $10 to $33/tonne wet matter. The metabolisable energy values (MJ ME/kg DM) of by-products were at least equivalent to those of high quality spring pasture (e.g. carrot 11.3, apple pomace 13.7), but nitrogen levels (\% in DM) were low compared to those recorded in pasture (e.g. corn 1.0\%, apple pomace 1.9\%). A linear programming analysis of a Hawkes Bay dairy farm indicated that farmers could afford to pay up to 15.5 cents/kg DM for additional feed from May to October and 26.7 cent/s kg DM during the remainder of the year if milkfat prices were $6/kg. These shadow values indicate the maximum price that could be paid for transport and feeding costs for by-products on the model farm.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Morris ST and Parker WJ and Burnham DL and Reynolds GW and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40448,
	title = {Intake and liveweight change of hoggets grazing pastures differing in dead matter content in autumn},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {53},
	year = {1993},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {29-32},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {White clover herbage in the vegetative stage of growth has a high nutritive value for milk production, but he high crude protein content could be better utilised if cows were given a suitable readily fermentable carbohydrate source. Six rumen fistulated Friesian cows in late lactation were housed in metabolism cages and fed either fresh white clover herbage or white clover and maize silage (50:50). The experiment was a cross over design that allowed measurement of nutrient intake, rumen function and milk production. At similar digestible organic matter intakes (9.6 kg/d vs 9.9 kg/d), replacing 50\% of the white clover dry matter with maize silage reduced crude protein intake by 30\% (3 kg/d vs 2.1 kg/d), and urinary N excretion from 251 gN/d to 137 gN/d without affecting milk yield (12.6 l/d vs 12.51 l/d) or milk protein output (400g/d vs 413 g/d). Rumen pH was similar for both treatments (6.1 vs 6.0) but there was a higher utilisation of neutral detergent fibre (2.6 kg/d vs 3.4 kg/d) when the cows were fed the mixed diet. The excess intake of nitrogen when the cows were fed white clover only was calculated to be largely wasted as ammonia absorbed from the rumen and excreted as urinary urea.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Hawkins C and Betteridge K and Costall DA and Liu Y and Vallentine I and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40455,
	title = {The potential of industry by-products as supplementary feeds for dairy cows in the Hawkes Bay region},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {53},
	year = {1993},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {55-60},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {No abstract supplied.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Bramwell NF and Parker WJ and Gray DI and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40364,
	title = {A conceptual framework for an expert system to improve drying off decisions on seasonal supply dairy farms - Brief Communication},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {52},
	year = {1992},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {11-12},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Forty Border Leicester (BL) and forty-eight Dorset Down (DD)  ewe hoggets (7.5mo) that had been farmed together were scanned using a  real-time ultrasound machine, at six sites with one muscle depth (B) and  five subcutaneous fat depth measurements (R - tissue depth over fifth  rib, C - backfat over last rib, GR, L - backfat over last lumbar  vertebrae, T - fat over tail) being taken. Comparisons of tissue ratios  (individual fat depth divided by B) were used to characterise  subcutaneous fat distribution. From these ratios it was found that the  DD had 9\%, 10\% and 6\% greater ratios at R, L and T respectively, and 7\%  lower ratios at C and GR. Breed differences at R, GR and T were  significant (P<0.05). It was concluded that true genetic differences in  subcutaneous fat distribution existed between the genotypes studied.  These findings have implications for carcass classification, for  breeding programmes for lean growth, and for comparisons of the fatness  of different genotypes.  },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Gray DI and Lynch GA and Lockhart JC and Parker WJ and Todd EG and Brookes IM}
}
@conference {40439,
	title = {The effect of sward surface height on ingestive behaviour and intake of once-bred and non-pregnant heifers under continuous stocking management in early winter},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {52},
	year = {1992},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {307-310},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Damage to soils and pastures in early Spring is a significant factor reducing pasture growth, feed utilisation and animal production on NZ dairy farms. Farmers have sought and may have found a management solution to this problem. It involves the early removal of dairy cows from pasture, after a period of grazing that is sufficient to meet the dry-matter intake needs of the cows. For example the colostrum herd might graze on pasture only at night, and spend the period between morning and afternoon milkings on the cowshed yard. The main herd will be on pasture during the daytime, but may be taken off pasture at 9.00 after 3 to 4 hours grazing, and stood on the cowshed yard until morning milking. This limits the extent of treading and reduced damage to soils and pasture, allowing the farm to sustain higher pasture growth rates, maintain a higher average pasture cover and achieve a longer first rotation. Dairy farmers have found they can stand lactating dairy cows without special facilities and without the need for supplementary feed provided certain conditions are met. The best place to stand cows from farmers experience is on the cowsheds concrete yard. Cows are used to standing there and the concrete is cleaned daily of stones, so risk of stone bruising to hooves is minimal. While space on the yard is limited, few cows lie down on the concrete. The close contact means they keep each other warm, and they may be less exposed to weather than in the paddock. There appears to be no detrimental effect on daily per cow production from this treatment and production data will present to illustrate this.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Inwood PR and Morris ST and Parker WJ and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40412,
	title = {Effects of shearing method on the physiology and productivity of sheep},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {52},
	year = {1992},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {199-202},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Three groups of sheep housed in metabolism crates were fed  Lotus corniculatus (low tannin), L. pendunculatus (medium  tannin) and ryegrass pasture (control) respectively. After a period of  adaptation to each of the diets, labelled 35S-cysteine and },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Holmes CW and Kamil KA and Parker WJ and MacKenzie DDS and Purchas G and Kidd R}
}
@conference {40417,
	title = {A modelling study of the productivity and profitability of unmated and mated ewes on North Island hill country},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {52},
	year = {1992},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {221-224},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Five groups (15-30) of Romney or Merino ewes were synchronised  with CIDR devices for 12 days in March or April. In all but one group  of Romney ewes 400IU PMSG was injected at CIDR removal. Intervals to  onset of oestrus and ovulation were determined by recording crayon marks  and laparoscopy respectively every 4 hours. Interval to ovulation was  not affected by ewe breed or month of treatment, but it was 7.9 hours  earlier in ewes injected with PMSG (48.9h vs 56.8h P<0.001) and the  variance was less (13.4h vs 35.7h P<0.05). Interval to oestrus was  affected by breed of ewe, date of synchronisation and use of PMSG.  },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Gray DI and Morris ST and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40390,
	title = {The role of computer software in the feeding of farm livestock},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {52},
	year = {1992},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {111-114},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Romney ewes with consistently high (H, n=5) or low L, n=5)  seasonal changes in wool growth and with differences in ovulation rate  and the onset of anoestrus, were blood sampled every 30 min for 24 h at  the winter and summer solstices and at the spring and autumn equinoxes.  Plasma samples were assayed for melatonin by direct radioimmunoassay.   Mean melatonin levels were higher during the hours of darkness than  during daylight at all sampling times. However, the ratio between day-  and night-time melatonin levels tended to be smaller in spring (1.8) and  summer (1.5) than autumn (2.9) and winter (1988 - 3.8; 1989 - 4.1).  There were no significant differences between H and L ewes in mean  melatonin concentrations during daylight or darkness at any of the  seasons. There was however, considerable variation between individual  ewes in the diurnal pattern of melatonin secretion in spring and summer.  The high levels of melatonin usually associated with darkness were  sometimes found during the day. These disrupted patterns of melatonin  secretion occurred in all ewes at one or other of these two seasons.  The results suggest that during anoestrus, melatonin profiles may  differ from the normal pattern of secretion that is aligned to  photoperiod.  },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Brookes IM and Parker WJ and Gray DI}
}
@conference {40347,
	title = {A modelling study of once-bred heifer beef production},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {51},
	year = {1991},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {389-394},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Sixteen cows were randomly allocated tot he two treatment  groups; one was given high digestibility hay (57\% DMD and the other low  digestibility hay (52\% DMD). Hay was available to appetite during the  daytime, while the cows grazed on a common pasture allowance (12 kg DM  per cow) at night.   Cows offered high digestibility hay ate more hay (P<0.01) but less  pasture (P<0.05) than those on the low digestibility hay. Pasture  intake was reduced by 0.2kg DM for each increase of 1 kg DM eaten as  high digestibility hay.   Cows offered the high digestibility hay ate more hay (P<0.01) but less  pasture (P<0.05) than those on the low digestibility hay. Pasture  intake was reduced by 0.2 kg DM for each increase of 1 kg DM eaten as  high digestibility hay.   Cows offered the high digestibility hay produced slightly more milk than  those on the low digestibility hay. This difference average 1.3 L per  cow daily, but was significant only in week 1. The composition of milk  did not differ between the two groups. The cows offered the high  digestibility hay also gained significantly more liveweight.   The data show that the quality of supplementary hay has an effect on  milk production, but that the effect is smaller than might have been  predicted because of the increased substitution of hay eaten instead of  pasture by cows given the higher quality hay and because of increased  liveweight gain by these cows. The probable economic value of high  digestibility supplement is discussed briefly.  },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Keeling PCB and Morris ST and Gray DI and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40255,
	title = {Intraruminal chromium controlled release capsules for measuring herbage intake in ruminants - a review},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {50},
	year = {1990},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {437-442},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {No abstract supplied   },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Morris ST and Garrick DJ and Vincent GL and McCutcheon SN}
}
@conference {40185,
	title = {An alternative hogget-two tooth shearing policy for summer-dry regions in New Zealand},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {49},
	year = {1989},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {291-296},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {No abstract supplied   },
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40068,
	title = {Bull beef production on hill country},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {47},
	year = {1987},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {119-122},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {The aims of this study were to compare ovarian and oestrous activity in ewes teased over a range of dates in late anoestrus by either rams or bucks. Entire Dorset rams or feral bucks (male goats) were joined with anovular Romney ewes on either January 20, 27; February 3, 10 or 17 in a 2 x 5 factorial design (N=350). Ovulations were determined 4 d later and first oestrus up to 6 weeks later. On day 8, ovulations were determined in ewes anovular on day 4 to buck teasings. Spontaneous ovulations first occurred in mid February. Rams were more effective than bucks at inducing ovulations. Furthermore, rams induced ovulations in ewes that failed to respond to bucks. Date of teasing had no effect on the pattern of first matings in ovulating ewes. Ewes stimulated to ovulate by rams tended to display oestrus earlier than ewes stimulated by bucks. These results demonstrate that rams and bucks will initiate early ovulation and oestrus in ewes, but rams are superior teasers to bucks.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Journeaux PR and McRae AF and Parker WJ}
}
@conference {40009,
	title = {Management practices and productive performance on hill country sheep farms},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	volume = {46},
	year = {1986},
	month = {Jan},
	pages = {133-138},
	publisher = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	organization = {New Zealand Society of Animal Production},
	abstract = {Beef cows in New Zealand are traditionally calved in late winter so that calves will be as big as possible for the weaner sales. This can create spring pasture supply problems and may contribute to poor reproductive performance in many beef herds. Early (11 August) and late (25 September) calving have been compared in 2 trials run on steep hill country. Comparisons were made in self- contained farmlets between June and February under 2 grazing strategies (set-stocking and rotational grazing). Later calving reduced interval to first oestrus by 16 d in both trials and increased pregnancy rates by 4 to 6\%. Late born calves grew at the same rate as early born calves in both trials (0.87 and 0.97 kg/d) and so were lighter at weaning at a fixed date. A rotational grazing strategy favoured cow performance, but set-stocking favoured calf weaning weight by 12 kg and 5 kg in the 2 trials. Later calving is likely to result in better reproductive performance in many hill country beef herds, but because calves will be lighter as weaners it would best suit systems where steers are currently retained and finished over 2 years or sold as store cattle at 18 months. The 18 month finishing policy will require earlier calving to maximise steer weight at sale time.},
	issn = {1176-5283},
	author = {Parker WJ and Townsley RJ}
}
